Preface xxv 1 Introduction 1 Fossilization and Ultimate Attainment 5 General failure 5 Differential success/failure 7 A Conceptual Framework 8 An Outline of the Book 10 2 What Is Fossilization? 12 Selinker‘s Definitions 14 Others’ View 16 Dictionary Definitions 18 An Alternative Definition 19 Key Issues 21 Is fossilization global or local? 21 Is fossilization a product or a process? 22 Summary 23 3 Behavioral Reflexes and Causal Variables 25 An Overview 25 Sample Explanations 28 Absence of corrective feedback 28 Quality of input 30 Lack of access to universal grammar 30 Failure of parameter resetting 30 Learning inhibiting learning 31 Automatization of faulty knowledge 31 Lack of understanding 32 Processing constraints 32 Lack of sensitivity to input 32 Change in emotional state 33 Natural inclination to focus on content， not on form 33 Avoidance 34 Satisfaction of communicative needs 34 Lack of acculturation 35 Will to maintain identity 36 Two Primary Determinants of Lack of Ability 38 Summary 42 4 A Macroscopic Analysis: Critical Period Effects 44 The Critical Period Hypothesis 44 CPH in FLA and SLA 46 The Modular Nature of CP 55 Critical Period Effects on Language Learning 57 Summary 62 5 A Macroscopic Analysis: Native Language Transfer 65 Transfer-inspired Delay in L2 Learning 68 ‘Transfer to Somewhere’ and ‘Transfer to Nowhere’ 69 Transfer of ‘Thinking for Speaking’ 75 Preprogramming 77 The Schwartz and Sprouse (1996) study 77 The Sorace (1993) study 80 Summary 85 6 A Microscopic Analysis: Some Empirical Evidence 87 Some Empirical Studies 87 The longitudinal approach 88 The typical-error approach 90 The advanced-learner approach 92 The corrective-feedback approach 95 The length-of-residence approach 97 Critique of the Methodologies 97 Two recent longitudinal studies 99 Is stabilization synonymous with fossilization? 102 Should a longitudinal study last five years or longer? . . . 104 The Modular Nature of Fossilization 106 Linguistic Features Prone to Fossilization 112 The Multiple Effects Principle 118 Summary 121 7 Second Language Instruction and Fossilization 125 To What Extent Does Instruction Aid Acquisition? 126 Explicit or implicit instruction? 129 Is grammar instruction necessary? 132 The zone of capability 136 To What Extent Does Instruction Promote Fossilization? . . . 147 Classroom input 151 Pedagogic strategies 157 Opportunity for use of language 161 Summary 161 8 Summary and Conclusion 166 A Synopsis 166 Implications for Research and Practice 169 General Directions for Future Research 174 References 177 Index 198
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